IGCSE
CHEMISTRY 12
SYLLABUS
1. The
particulate nature of matter
2. Experimental techniques
2.1 Measurement
2.2.1 Criteria of purity
2.2.2 Methods of purification
3. Atoms, elements and compounds
3.1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
3.2.1 Bonding: the
structure of matter
3.2.2 Ions and ionic
bonds
3.2.3 Molecules and
covalent bonds
3.2.4 Macromolecules
3.2.5 Metallic bonding (Extended candidates
only)
4. Stoichiometry
4.1 Stoichiometry
4.2 The mole concept (Extended candidates
only)
5. Electricity and chemistry
6. Chemical energetics
6.1 Energetics of a
reaction
6.2 Energy transfer
7. Chemical reactions
7.1 Physical and chemical changes
7.2 Rate (speed) of reaction
7.3 Reversible
reactions
7.4 Redox
8. Acids, bases and
salts
8.1 The characteristic
properties of acids and bases
8.2 Types of oxides
8.3 Preparation of
salts
8.4 Identification of
ions and gases
9. The Periodic Table
9.1 The Periodic Table
9.2 Periodic trends
9.3 Group properties
9.4 Transition elements
9.5 Noble gases
10. Metals
10.1 Properties of
metals
10.2 Reactivity series
10.3 Extraction of metals
10.4 Uses of metals
11. Air and water
11.1 Water
11.2 Air
11.3 Nitrogen and fertilizers
11.4 Carbon dioxide and methane
12. Sulfur
13. Carbonates
14. Organic chemistry
14.1 Names of compounds
14.2 Fuels
14.3 Homologous series
14.4 Alkanes
14.5 Alkenes
14.6 Alcohols
14.7 Carboxylic acids
14.8.1 Polymers
14.8.2 Synthetic
polymers
14.8.3 Natural polymers
1.
The particulate nature of matter
Core
• State the distinguishing
properties of solids, liquids and gases
• Describe the structure of solids,
liquids and gases in terms of particle separation, arrangement and types of
motion
• Describe changes of state in terms of
melting, boiling, evaporation, freezing, condensation and sublimation
• Describe qualitatively the pressure and
temperature of a gas in terms of the motion of its particles
• Show an understanding of the random motion
of particles in a suspension (sometimes known as Brownian motion) as evidence
for the kinetic particle (atoms, molecules or ions) model of matter
• Describe and explain diffusion
Supplement
• Explain changes of state in terms of the
kinetic theory
• Describe and explain Brownian motion in
terms of random molecular bombardment
• State evidence for Brownian
motion
• Describe and explain dependence
of rate of diffusion on molecular mass
2.
Experimental techniques
2.1
Measurement
Core
• Name appropriate apparatus for
the measurement of time, temperature, mass and volume, including burettes,
pipettes and measuring cylinders
2.2.1
Criteria of purity
Core
•
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of paper chromatography
• Interpret simple chromatograms
• Identify substances and assess their purity
from melting point and boiling point information
• Understand the importance of
purity in substances in everyday life, e.g. foodstuffs and drugs
Supplement
• Interpret simple chromatograms, including
the use of Rf values
• Outline how chromatography techniques can be
applied to colourless substances by exposing chromatograms to substances called
locating agents (Knowledge of specific locating agents is not required.)
2.2.2
Methods of purification
Core
• Describe and explain methods of
purification by the use of a suitable solvent, filtration, crystallisation and
distillation (including use of fractionating column). (Refer to the fractional
distillation of petroleum in section 14.2 and products of fermentation in
section 14.6.)
• Suggest suitable purification
techniques, given information about the substances involved
3.
Atoms, elements and compounds
3.1
Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
Core
• State the relative charges and
approximate relative masses of protons, neutrons and electrons
• Define proton number (atomic
number) as the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
• Define nucleon number (mass number) as the
total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
• Use proton number and the simple
structure of atoms to explain the basis of the Periodic Table (see section 9),
with special reference to the elements of proton number 1 to 20
• Define isotopes as atoms of the
same element which have the same proton number but a different nucleon number
• State the two types of isotopes
as being radioactive and non-radioactive
• State one medical and one
industrial use of radioactive isotopes
• Describe the build-up of electrons in
‘shells’ and understand the significance of the noble gas electronic structures
and of the outer shell electrons (The ideas of the distribution of electrons in
s and p orbitals and in d block elements are not required.) Note: a copy
of the Periodic Table, as shown in the Appendix, will be available in Papers 1,
2, 3 and 4.
Supplement
• Understand that isotopes have the same
properties because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shell .
3.2.1
Bonding: the structure of matter
Core
• Describe the differences between
elements, mixtures and compounds, and between metals and non-metals
• Describe an alloy, such as brass,
as a mixture of a metal with other elements
3.2.2 Ions and ionic bonds
Core
• Describe the formation of ions by
electron loss or gain
• Describe the formation of ionic
bonds between elements from Groups I and VII
Supplement
• Describe the formation of ionic
bonds between metallic and non-metallic elements
• Describe the lattice structure of
ionic compounds as a regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative
ions
3.2.3
Molecules and covalent bonds
Core
• Describe the formation of single covalent
bonds in H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4, NH3 and HCl as the sharing of pairs of electrons
leading to the noble gas configuration
• Describe the differences in
volatility, solubility and electrical conductivity between ionic and covalent
compounds
Supplement
• Describe the electron arrangement in more
complex covalent molecules such as N2, C2H4, CH3OH and CO2 • Explain the
differences in melting point and boiling point of ionic and covalent compounds
in terms of attractive forces
3.2.4
Macromolecules
Core
• Describe the giant covalent
structures of graphite and diamond
• Relate their structures to their
uses, e.g. graphite as a lubricant and a conductor, and diamond in cutting
tools
Supplement
• Describe the macromolecular
structure of silicon(IV) oxide (silicon dioxide)
• Describe the similarity in
properties between diamond and silicon(IV) oxide, related to their structures
3.2.5
Metallic bonding
Supplement
• Describe metallic bonding as a
lattice of positive ions in a ‘sea of electrons’ and use this to describe the
electrical conductivity and malleability of metals
4.
Stoichiometry
4.1
Stoichiometry
Core
• Use the symbols of the elements
and write the formulae of simple compounds
• Deduce the formula of a simple compound from
the relative numbers of atoms present
• Deduce the formula of a simple
compound from a model or a diagrammatic representation
• Construct word equations and
simple balanced chemical equations
• Define relative atomic mass, Ar , as the
average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element on a scale where the
12C atom has a mass of exactly 12 units
• Define relative molecular mass, Mr , as the
sum of the relative atomic masses (Relative formula mass or Mr will be used for
ionic compounds.) (Calculations involving reacting masses in simple proportions
may be set. Calculations will not involve the mole concept.) Supplement
• Determine the formula of an ionic compound
from the charges on the ions present
• Construct equations with state symbols,
including ionic equations
• Deduce the balanced equation for
a chemical reaction, given relevant information
4.2 The mole concept
Supplement
• Define the mole and the Avogadro constant
• Use the molar gas volume, taken
as 24dm3 at room temperature and pressure
• Calculate stoichiometric reacting
masses, volumes of gases and solutions, and concentrations of solutions
expressed in g/dm3 and mol/dm3 (Calculations involving the idea of limiting
reactants may be set. Questions on the gas laws and the conversion of gaseous
volumes to different temperatures and pressures will not be set.)
• Calculate empirical formulae and molecular
formulae
• Calculate percentage yield and
percentage purity
19
5. Electricity and chemistry
Core
• Define electrolysis as the breakdown of an
ionic compound, molten or in aqueous solution, by the passage of electricity
• Describe the electrode products
and the observations made during the electrolysis of: – molten lead(II) bromide
– concentrated hydrochloric acid – concentrated aqueous sodium chloride –
dilute sulfuric acid between inert electrodes (platinum or carbon)
• State the general principle that metals or
hydrogen are formed at the negative electrode (cathode), and that non-metals
(other than hydrogen) are formed at the positive electrode (anode)
Supplement
• Relate the products of electrolysis to the
electrolyte and electrodes used, exemplified by the specific examples in the
Core together with aqueous copper(II) sulfate using carbon electrodes and using
copper electrodes (as used in the refining of copper)
• Describe electrolysis in terms of
the ions present and reactions at the electrodes in the examples given
• Predict the products of the electrolysis of
a specified binary compound in the molten state
• Describe the electroplating of metals
• Outline the uses of electroplating
• Describe the reasons for the use of copper
and (steelcored) aluminium in cables, and why plastics and ceramics are used as
insulators
• Predict the products of
electrolysis of a specified halide in dilute or concentrated aqueous solution
• Construct ionic half-equations for reactions
at the cathode
• Describe the transfer of charge during
electrolysis to include: – the movement of electrons in the metallic conductor
– the removal or addition of electrons from the external circuit at the electrodes
– the movement of ions in the electrolyte
• Describe the production of
electrical energy from simple cells, i.e. two electrodes in an electrolyte.
(This should be linked with the reactivity series in section 10.2 and redox in
section 7.4.)
• Describe, in outline, the manufacture of: –
aluminium from pure aluminium oxide in molten cryolite (refer to section 10.3)
– chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide from concentrated aqueous sodium
chloride (Starting materials and essential conditions should be given but not
technical details or diagrams.)
6.
Chemical energetics
6.1
Energetics of a reaction
Core
• Describe the meaning of exothermic and
endothermic reactions
• Interpret energy level diagrams showing
exothermic and endothermic reactions
Supplement
• Describe bond breaking as an
endothermic process and bond forming as an exothermic process
• Draw and label energy level
diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions using data provided
• Calculate the energy of a
reaction using bond energies
6.2
Energy transfer
Core
• Describe the release of heat
energy by burning fuels
• State the use of hydrogen as a fuel
• Describe radioactive isotopes,
such as 235U, as a source of energy
Supplement
• Describe the use of hydrogen as a
fuel reacting with oxygen to generate electricity in a fuel cell (Details of
the construction and operation of a fuel cell are not required.) 7. Chemical
reactions
7.1 Physical and chemical changes
Core
• Identify physical and chemical
changes, and understand the differences between them
7.2
Rate (speed) of reaction
Core
• Describe and explain the effect
of concentration, particle size, catalysts (including enzymes) and temperature
on the rate of reactions
• Describe the application of the above
factors to the danger of explosive combustion with fine powders (e.g. flour
mills) and gases (e.g. methane in mines)
• Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of a practical method for investigating the rate of a reaction
involving gas evolution
• Interpret data obtained from
experiments concerned with rate of reaction Note: Candidates should be
encouraged to use the term rate rather than speed.
Supplement
• Devise and evaluate a suitable method for
investigating the effect of a given variable on the rate of a reaction
• Describe and explain the effects of
temperature and concentration in terms of collisions between reacting particles
(An increase in temperature causes an increase in collision rate and more of
the colliding molecules have sufficient energy (activation energy) to react
whereas an increase in concentration only causes an increase in collision
rate.) cont.
7.2
Rate (speed) of reaction continued
• Describe and explain the role of
light in photochemical reactions and the effect of light on the rate of these
reactions (This should be linked to section 14.4.)
• Describe the use of silver salts in
photography as a process of reduction of silver ions to silver; and
photosynthesis as the reaction between carbon dioxide and water in the presence
of chlorophyll and sunlight (energy) to produce glucose and oxygen
7.3 Reversible reactions
Core
• Understand that some chemical
reactions can be reversed by changing the reaction conditions (Limited to the
effects of heat and water on hydrated and anhydrous copper(II) sulfate and
cobalt(II) chloride.) (Concept of equilibrium is not required.)
Supplement
• Predict the effect of changing the
conditions (concentration, temperature and pressure) on other reversible
reactions
• Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the concept of equilibrium
7.4
Redox
Core
• Define oxidation and reduction in
terms of oxygen loss/gain. (Oxidation state limited to its use to name ions,
e.g. iron(II), iron(III), copper(II), manganate(VII).)
Supplement
• Define redox in terms of electron transfer
• Identify redox reactions by changes in
oxidation state and by the colour changes involved when using acidified
potassium manganate(VII), and potassium iodide. (Recall of equations involving
KMnO4 is not required.)
• Define oxidising agent as a substance which
oxidises another substance during a redox reaction. Define reducing agent as a
substance which reduces another substance during a redox reaction.
• Identify oxidising agents and
reducing agents from simple equations
8.
Acids, bases and salts
8.1
The characteristic properties of acids and bases
Core
• Describe the characteristic
properties of acids as reactions with metals, bases, carbonates and effect on
litmus and methyl orange
• Describe the characteristic properties of
bases as reactions with acids and with ammonium salts and effect on litmus and
methyl orange
• Describe neutrality and relative acidity and
alkalinity in terms of pH measured using Universal Indicator paper (whole
numbers only)
• Describe and explain the
importance of controlling acidity in soil
Supplement
• Define acids and bases in terms
of proton transfer, limited to aqueous solutions
• Describe the meaning of weak and
strong acids and bases
8.2
Types of oxides
Core
• Classify oxides as either acidic
or basic, related to metallic and non-metallic character
Supplement
• Further classify other oxides as
neutral or amphoteric
8.3
Preparation of salts
Core
• Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of preparation, separation and purification of salts as examples
of some of the techniques specified in section 2.2.2 and the reactions
specified in section 8.1
Supplement
• Demonstrating knowledge and
understanding of the preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation
• Suggest a method of making a
given salt from a suitable starting material, given appropriate information
8.4
Identification of ions and gases
Core
• Describe the following tests to identify:
aqueous cations: aluminium, ammonium, calcium, chromium(III), copper(II),
iron(II), iron(III) and zinc (using aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous
ammonia as appropriate) (Formulae of complex ions are not required.) cations:
use of the flame test to identify lithium, sodium, potassium and copper(II)
anions: carbonate (by reaction with dilute acid and then limewater), chloride,
bromide and iodide (by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous silver
nitrate), nitrate (by reduction with aluminium), sulfate (by reaction under
acidic conditions with aqueous barium ions) and sulfite (by reaction with
dilute acids and then aqueous potassium manganate(VII)) gases: ammonia (using
damp red litmus paper), carbon dioxide (using limewater), chlorine (using damp
litmus paper), hydrogen (using lighted splint), oxygen (using a glowing
splint), and sulfur dioxide (using aqueous potassium manganate(VII))
9.
The Periodic Table
9.1
The Periodic Table
Core
• Describe the Periodic Table as a
method of classifying elements and its use to predict properties of elements
9.2 Periodic trends
Core
• Describe the change from metallic
to non-metallic character across a period
Supplement
• Describe and explain the
relationship between Group number, number of outer shell electrons and
metallic/nonmetallic character
9.3
Group properties
Core
• Describe lithium, sodium and potassium in
Group I as a collection of relatively soft metals showing a trend in
melting point, density and reaction with water
• Predict the properties of other
elements in Group I, given data, where appropriate
• Describe the halogens, chlorine, bromine and
iodine in Group VII, as a collection of diatomic non-metals showing a trend in
colour and density and state their reaction with other halide ions
• Predict the properties of other elements in
Group VII, given data where appropriate
Supplement
• Identify trends in Groups, given
information about the elements concerned
9.4
Transition elements
Core
• Describe the transition elements
as a collection of metals having high densities, high melting points and
forming coloured compounds, and which, as elements and compounds, often act as
catalysts
Supplement
• Know that transition elements
have variable oxidation states
9.5
Noble gases
Core
• Describe the noble gases, in
Group VIII or 0, as being unreactive, monoatomic gases and explain this in
terms of electronic structure • State the uses of the noble gases in providing
an inert atmosphere, i.e. argon in lamps, helium for filling balloons
10.
Metals
10.1
Properties of metals
Core
• List the general physical properties of
metals
• Describe the general chemical properties of
metals e.g. reaction with dilute acids and reaction with oxygen
• Explain in terms of their properties why
alloys are used instead of pure metals
• Identify representations of alloys from
diagrams of structure
10.2 Reactivity series
Core
• Place in order of reactivity: potassium,
sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, (hydrogen) and copper, by reference to
the reactions, if any, of the metals with: – water or steam – dilute hydrochloric
acid and the reduction of their oxides with carbon
• Deduce an order of reactivity from a given
set of experimental results
Supplement
• Describe the reactivity series as
related to the tendency of a metal to form its positive ion, illustrated by its
reaction, if any, with: – the aqueous ions – the oxides of the other
listed metals
• Describe and explain the action of heat on
the hydroxides, carbonates and nitrates of the listed metals
• Account for the apparent
unreactivity of aluminium in terms of the oxide layer which adheres to the
metal
10.3
Extraction of metals
Core
• Describe the ease in obtaining metals from
their ores by relating the elements to the reactivity series
• Describe and state the essential reactions
in the extraction of iron from hematite
• Describe the conversion of iron into steel
using basic oxides and oxygen
• Know that aluminium is extracted
from the ore bauxite by electrolysis
• Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of recycling metals, limited to iron/steel and aluminium
Supplement
• Describe in outline, the extraction of zinc
from zinc blende
• Describe in outline, the
extraction of aluminium from bauxite including the role of cryolite and the
reactions at the electrodes
Uses
of metals
Core
• Name the uses of aluminium: – in
the manufacture of aircraft because of its strength and low density – in food
containers because of its resistance to corrosion
• Name the uses of copper related
to its properties (electrical wiring and in cooking utensils)
• Name the uses of mild steel (car
bodies and machinery) and stainless steel (chemical plant and cutlery)
Supplement
• Explain the uses of zinc for
galvanising and for making brass
• Describe the idea of changing the properties
of iron by the controlled use of additives to form steel alloys
11.
Air and water
11.1
Water
Core
• Describe chemical tests for water
using cobalt(II) chloride and copper(II) sulfate
• Describe, in outline, the
treatment of the water supply in terms of filtration and chlorination
• Name some of the uses of water in
industry and in the home Supplement
• Discuss the implications of an inadequate
supply of water, limited to safe water for drinking and water for irrigating
crops
11.2 Air
Core
• State the composition of clean,
dry air as being approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and the remainder as
being a mixture of noble gases and carbon dioxide
• Name the common pollutants in the air as
being carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds
• State the source of each of these
pollutants: – carbon monoxide from the incomplete combustion of
carbon-containing substances – sulfur dioxide from the combustion of fossil
fuels which contain sulfur compounds (leading to ‘acid rain’) – oxides of
nitrogen from car engines – lead compounds from leaded petrol
• State the adverse effect of these
common pollutants on buildings and on health and discuss why these pollutants
are of global concern
• State the conditions required for
the rusting of iron
• Describe and explain methods of
rust prevention, specifically paint and other coatings to exclude oxygen
Supplement
• Describe the separation of oxygen and
nitrogen from liquid air by fractional distillation
• Describe and explain the presence
of oxides of nitrogen in car engines and their catalytic removal
• Describe and explain sacrificial
protection in terms of the reactivity series of metals and galvanising as a
method of rust prevention
11.3
Nitrogen and fertilisers
Core
• Describe the need for nitrogen-,
phosphorus- and potassium-containing fertilizers
• Describe the displacement of ammonia from
its salts Supplement • Describe and explain the essential conditions for the
manufacture of ammonia by the Haber process including the sources of the
hydrogen and nitrogen, i.e. hydrocarbons or steam and air
11.4 Carbon dioxide and methane
Core
• State that carbon dioxide and methane are
greenhouse gases and explain how they may contribute to climate change
• State the formation of carbon
dioxide: – as a product of complete combustion of carboncontaining substances –
as a product of respiration – as a product of the reaction between an acid and
a carbonate – from the thermal decomposition of a carbonate
• State the sources of methane, including
decomposition of vegetation and waste gases from digestion in animals
Supplement
• Describe the carbon cycle, in simple terms,
to include the processes of combustion, respiration and photosynthesis
12.
Sulfur
Core
• Name some sources of sulfur
• Name the use of sulfur in the
manufacture of sulfuric acid
• State the uses of sulfur dioxide as a bleach
in the manufacture of wood pulp for paper and as a food preservative (by
killing bacteria)
Supplement
• Describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid by
the Contact process, including essential conditions and reactions
• Describe the properties and uses
of dilute and concentrated sulfuric acid
13.
Carbonates
Core
• Describe the manufacture of lime
(calcium oxide) from calcium carbonate (limestone) in terms of thermal
decomposition
• Name some uses of lime and slaked lime such
as in treating acidic soil and neutralising acidic industrial waste products,
e.g. flue gas desulfurisation
• Name the uses of calcium
carbonate in the manufacture of iron and cement
14.1
Names of compounds
Core
• Name and draw the structures of
methane, ethane, ethene, ethanol, ethanoic acid and the products of the
reactions stated in sections 14.4–14.6
• State the type of compound
present, given a chemical name ending in ‑ane, ‑ene, ‑ol, or ‑oic acid or a
molecular structure
Supplement
• Name and draw the structures of the
unbranched alkanes, alkenes (not cistrans), alcohols and acids containing up to
four carbon atoms per molecule
• Name and draw the structural formulae of the
esters which can be made from unbranched alcohols and carboxylic acids, each
containing up to four carbon atoms
14.2
Fuels
Core
• Name the fuels: coal, natural gas and
petroleum
• Name methane as the main
constituent of natural gas
• Describe petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons
and its separation into useful fractions by fractional distillation
• Describe the properties of molecules within
a fraction
• Name the uses of the fractions
as: – refinery gas for bottled gas for heating and cooking – gasoline fraction
for fuel (petrol) in cars – naphtha fraction for making chemicals –
kerosene/paraffin fraction for jet fuel – diesel oil/gas oil for fuel in diesel
engines – fuel oil fraction for fuel for ships and home heating systems –
lubricating fraction for lubricants, waxes and polishes – bitumen for making
roads
14.3
Homologous series
Core
• Describe the concept of
homologous series as a ‘family’ of similar compounds with similar chemical
properties due to the presence of the same functional group
Supplement
• Describe the general
characteristics of an homologous series
• Recall that the compounds in a
homologous series have the same general formula
• Describe and identify structural
isomerism
14.4 Alkanes
Core
• Describe the properties of
alkanes (exemplified by methane) as being generally unreactive, except in terms
of burning
• Describe the bonding in alkanes
Supplement
• Describe substitution reactions
of alkanes with chlorine.
14.5
Alkenes
Core
• Describe the manufacture of
alkenes and of hydrogen by cracking • Distinguish between saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons: – from molecular structures – by reaction with
aqueous bromine
• Describe the formation of
poly(ethene) as an example of addition polymerisation of monomer units
Supplement
• Describe the properties of
alkenes in terms of addition reactions with bromine, hydrogen and steam
14.6
Alcohols
Core
• Describe the manufacture of
ethanol by fermentation and by the catalytic addition of steam to ethane
• Describe the properties of ethanol in terms
of burning
• Name the uses of ethanol as a
solvent and as a fuel
Supplement
• Outline the advantages and disadvantages of
these two methods of manufacturing ethanol
14.7
Carboxylic acids
Core
• Describe the properties of
aqueous ethanoic acid
Supplement
• Describe the formation of ethanoic acid by
the oxidation of ethanol by fermentation and with acidified potassium
manganate(VII)
• Describe ethanoic acid as a
typical weak acid
• Describe the reaction of a
carboxylic acid with an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst to give an ester
14.8.1
Polymers
Core
• Define polymers as large
molecules built up from small units (monomers)
Supplement
• Understand that different polymers have
different units and/or different linkages.
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